Peoples attitudes on language

This is only a draft of one assignment about languages in New Zealand so I will come back at a later stage and correct it so it is more enjoyable to read. Thank you!


In a country like New Zealand there are many minority languages which face criticism and judgement, such as, the Maori language for example a feeling toward language is in fact some feeling towards the cultural group. Furthermore, the Maori language is just an example of a minority language in which its health is influenced by the social, economic and political factors in the community. These factors can have both disadvantages and advantages for the maintenance of the language. There is a major connection between language attitude and language maintenance because the attitudes of both the speaker themselves and those whom they speak with continue to judge the speaker according to the language they speak.

There are various cases where minority languages are not believed to be as prestigious as others which are dominant in society however; there are various methods that minority ethnic groups can undertake to help their language survive. Joris de Bres’s article which I have read shows the experience a migrant and what he faces in a country where there is another dominant language, such as English. Moreover, he looks over at his experience as a Dutch immigrant in New Zealand and how his identity influenced the English speakers in New Zealand. There is a strong relationship between attuides about language and maintenance them. They are influenced by the speaker, minority group and community and because of negative attitudes that increase the likelihood that the language will not survive for the next generation.

Researchers whose work I have looked, such as, Holmes (2008) give me a good explanation on peoples' language attitudes. They are feelings, values, thoughts, beliefs and judgements on the way a language is spoken both and this can be from the perspective of someone who speaks the language or someone who does not. Often, these evaluations are not noticed by the people to display such attitudes becuase they are unaware of them. These attitudes that they are unaware they are expressing are more about the speaker rather the language.

Language maintenance is easily understood from Holmes (2008) explanation that it is when the minority language continues to be used in some domains so that the speakers can use it on a daily basis. This concept is contrasted with language shift which is when the minority language is replaced by a more prestigious one such as English which is regarded with high economic status. Finally, the contrast of maintenance and language death which is when a language dies and it is not used in any domains by the minority.

One major connection between the two theories De Bres (1997) explains is the prestige of the language in comparison with others or the status of the language determines the maintenance of the language. . For instance, the first and second generations’ consider a use of the minority language important in the family and home domain important because it increases the likelihood those future generations will maintain the language. Holmes (2008) also comments on this feature, for instance, he comments on the use of Maori language amongst family members and in intimate domains such as amongst friends from the same ethnic group. The use of minority languages amongst families is also found in Punjab and Guajarati families in English dominated countries. These communities tended to stick together to keep the language prestigious.

This is in contrast to an individualistic culture such as, the Dutch whose cultures is closer to the English one therefore, the later generations generally bring the English language into homes which can increase language shift. Furthermore, the easy access to the language is other geographical regions improve the likelihood of its maintenance. To explain, Dutch is spoken in Holland therefore there is the opportunity for Dutch speakers to return home to retain their identity.

Often, the dominant language is more prestigious than others, such as; English is New Zealand because it is used in many formal and institutional domains. These include in schools, churches, and during market transactions. De Bres (1997) explains that English in New Zealand is considered more prestigious than other minority ones because it is considered opens economic opportunity, modern, logical, competent and enhance assimilation into a dominant cultural group. Therefore, their attitudes towards Dutch immigrants are based on the status of language.

Language attitudes are closely related to identity. In other words, the beliefs and feelings that one has for a language is actually an attitude about identity. According to De Bres (1997), as a Dutch speaker in New Zealand, he did not identify with the mainstream community nor did he with Dutch speakers in Holland because of the large geographical distance between the two countries. He identified himself as a New Zealander therefore felt it necessary to learn English. However, the historical context does have a large impact on attitudes; for instance, in the early 1940s attitudes towards Dutch minorities were hostile and stereotypical. In contemporary time, with globalization attitudes have changed and have become more positive towards minority groups.

Another factor that ensures that a minority language is maintained is its “demographic support” in other words, the number of speakers in an area. For example, gurujarti speakers in New Zealand tend to concentrate in the same area therefore; there is more of a chance that the language is used on a daily basis. A theory that supports this connection is “verbal repertoire” which refers to the range of linguistic resources available to the individual or community. These can include in family, market, and trading domains. Furthermore, the increasing migration of a particular ethnic group increases the density of speakers in areas where there are majority who speak a dominant language. Therefore, contact between the same groups is essential for maintenance.

Furthermore, the relationship between the dominant culture and minority cultures in a country is important for maintenance and can determine whether the language shifts or dies. For example, in Australia, there is not such a strong or equal relationship between European Australians and Aborigines because of colonialism therefore; more aboriginal children used the dominant language in most of their domains. Furthermore, in New Zealand the government used to scatter Maori communities around the country to increase language shift.

Another important relation between maintenance and attitudes is the institutional support available to the minority population. For instance, local newspapers, radio and television stations increase the use of language on a daily basis thus, promoting it amongst the younger generations. De Bres (1997) also comments on the large number of Chinese takeaways in New Zealand and reasons that these increase the acceptance for minority languages using their own dialects. Furthermore, there are examples where the language is religiously prestigious such as the classical Arabic used in the Koran. Hence, there are a wider community of speakers therefore, promotes maintenance.

On the other hand, negative attitudes on minority languages prevent or slow down maintenance. It is known that sometimes the minority group wishes to identify with the new country therefore; they make some effort to use the new language in most domains. Also, the increasing populations in urban centers leads to contact with other groups and mixed marriages causes shift because there is a need to adopt the dominant language to communicate with the rest of the rural community. Finally, the use of a dominant language in school socializes the children into the mainstream society thus may cause a language shift in the home domain. This can be by relexification which is when words in the dominant language replacing words in the minority language thus future generations will not use the same language as their ancestors.

Indeed, the attitudes expressed unconsciously by the speaker themselves and those whom they speak with influence language maintenance or on the other hand, can cause language shift or even language death. Often, these attitudes are positive or negative based on the individual’s evaluation of a language. It is true that media, newspapers and other institutional support increase the likelihood that the language will be transmitted along generations. In addition, the increasing awareness of minority culture amongst the dominant culture encourages acceptance of minority languages in mainstream society. Nowadays, there are large concentrated communities of minority groups such as Indian Tamil and Chinese in New Zealand therefore, there are more opportunities to use their native language in the home and family domain. In fact, research has discovered that attitudes are not just about the language rather it is about the speaker themselves; in other words, it is an evaluation of their identity. Those minority groups who are in competition with a dominant language often face difficulties with language shift and some indigenous groups have suffered language death where tiny number of speakers are present in society. This phenomenon is based on the prestige or status of the language. The institutions and large number of minority members in another country increase a language’s status. The theories are relevant to sociolinguistics because it gives some insight and encourages awareness of language shift and death. The implications of acknowledging there is a connection between language attitudes and maintenance gives opportunity for further research in institutions and cultural relations.